Concept of Varnasrama (Varnashrama)

The word dharma generally understood as ‘the religious and moral duties’ of a person in his or her life. We must have to remember that dharma is a key concept in most of the World’s religions with various meaning, specifically in Hinduism.

 

In Hinduism, dharma is an organising principle that applies on human beings in their interaction with other humans and nature as well as between inanimate objects to all of Cosmos and its parts. It talks about the order and customs which make life and universe possible and includes behaviours, rituals, rules and ethics, which govern a society. In its true essence, dharma means “to expand the mind”. Furthermore, it represents the direct connection between the individual and the societal phenomena that bind the society together.

 

In Hinduism, dharma generally includes various aspects like Sanatana Dharma, Varnasrama dharma, Sva dharma, Sadharana dharma, Yuga dharma, etc. If we talk about Varnasram and it’s various aspects, we find that, the concept of Varnasram or Varnashrama dharma can easily understand by examine two core words – Varna and Ashrama, as these two social institutions combine to form Varnasram dharma.

 

When we talk about first core word – Varna, we found a lot of debates and opinions about its origin and specially its effect on Indian society. As it is a debatable topic, so here we take generally accepted definition and views about Varna. The literal meaning of Varna is Colour but later it solidified into caste system. We traced the Varna concept from the Purusha Sukta verse of the Rig Veda; which classify society as the Brahman, Rajanya (instead of Kshatriya), Vaishya and Shudra classes forming the mouth, arms, thighs and feet at the sacrifice of the Primordial Purusha, respectively. In the post-Vedic period, the Varna division is described in the Dharmashastra, Mahabharata and in Puranas, also. The Varna system In Dharma-shastras divides society into four varnas (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishya and Shudras). Those who fall out of this system because of their grievous sins are Untouchables and considered outside the Varna system. Barbarians and those who are unrighteous or unethical are also considered outcastes.

 

Note 1: There are misconceptions regarding varnas and Holy book Bhagavad Gita and generally people considered that, Lord Krishna divide and create caste in society. Actually, when we examine text and acquire meaning, we found it true that Bhagavad Gita mentioned about varnas and division in society, but Lord Krishna said that "The fourfold order was created by Me, according to the divisions of quality and work (karma)”. So, this is a division by karma of a person not by birth of a person; it also means that one can create his position in society by hard work.

 

Now, we talk about second core word i.e. Ashrama dharma, according to Hinduism, there are four stages in human life which are called Ashramas. These are the four stages of learning and advancing for a human being. And it is believed in Hinduism that Ashrama dharma provide an opportunity to prepare oneself to reach enlightenment (or Moksha), which is the highest aim of human life. Following are the four Asramas:-

(a). Brahmacharya Ashrama (Student) (Age ranges from Birth to 25 years old) (Students take entry into Gurukul by Upanayana rituals and leave Gurukul by Samavartana rituals)

- Brahmacharya represented the bachelor student stage of life. This stage focuses on education and included the practice of celibacy.

 

(b). Grhastha Ashrama (Household) (Age ranges from 25 to 50 years old) (Usually begin with Marriage)

- This stage referred to the individual’s married life, with the duties of maintaining a household, raising a family, educating children, and leading a family-centred and a dharma oriented social life. It was a most important sociological stage and represented most intense physical, sexual, emotional, occupational, social and material attachments exist in a human being’s life.

 

(c). Vanaprastha Ashrama (Forest Walker or Retired Life) (Age ranges from 50-75 years old)

- This was retirement stage, where a person handed over household responsibilities to the next generation, took an advisory role, and gradually withdrew from the world.

- This Vanaprastha stage was a transition phase from a householder’s life to Moksha (spiritual liberation).

 

(d). Sanyasa Ashrama (Renunciation) (Age above 75 years old or anytime after 25 years old as this stage can be followed after Brahmacharya stage directly)

- This stage was marked by renunciation of material things, and focused on Moksha, peace and simple spiritual life.

 

Now, when we talk about Varnasrama dharma, we found that, it is a Sanskrit word, means “Caste and Stages of life”. It consist two social institutions -Varna system and Ashrama dharama. Varna system talks about four social orders or division (Caste) while Ashrama dharma talks about four stages of life. They both mingled to form Varnasrama dharma. Varnasrama dharma consist a set of personal duties and social responsibilities for an individual, as describe above. It is very important to note that dharma like Varnasrama present in Hinduism offers a complete healthy lifespan. By healthy, we mean, by following rules and adopting teachings of dharma in life, a human can happily live his/her life.

 

We just tried to define Varnasrama dharma in simple words with help of its some important aspects; however this topic is a matter of time and further study, which is not required here. If you further want to study this topic we suggest that you first read Rigveda. All suggestions, queries and comments are welcome through comment section; you can also contact us through below form.

 

 

Note 2: In India, Communities which belong to one of the four varnas or classes are called Savarna Hindus. The Dalits and Tribals who do not belong to any varnas were called Avarna.

 

Note 3: The Laws of Manu was one of the first Sanskrit texts to be translated into English in 1776, by British philologist Sir William Jones, and was used to construct the Hindu law code.

 

 

 

- Bibliography

1. Bahadur, Rakesh. Varna Ashram and Hindu Scriptures.

 

2. Bharati, Swami Paramananda. Mahaparivrajaka (A Novel Based on Shankaracharya`s Life and Philisophy. Chaukhamba Surbharati Prakashan. India. 2014.

[ISBN-10: 9383721790 /ISBN-13: 978-9383721795]

 

3. Dahiya, Poonam Dalal. Ancient and Medieval India. McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited. Delhi. 2^nd Edition. 2020.

[ISBN10: 9390113644 /ISBN13: 978-9390113644]

 

4. Das, Harivilas. Varnashrama Dharma-Perfect Organization of Society.

 

5. Exotic India. Varnashrama Dharma: A Logical View. Exotic India Pvt Ltd. Newsletter/Article. 2015.

 

6. Flaherty, Wendy Doniger O`. Rig Veda (Black Classics). Penguin (India) Books. New Delhi. 2000.

[ISBN10: 9780140444025 /ISBN-13: 978-0140444025]

 

7. IGNOU. MGP003. Gandhi`s Social Thought. Indra Gandhi National Open University. New Delhi.

 

8. Kadlabal, Ravindranath. Purusha Suktam : With the original Sanskrit Commentary of Sri Vadiraja Teertha Swamiji. Notion Press. 2022.

[ISBN-13: 979-8888158630]

 

9. Prabhu, R.K. Mind of Mahatma Gandhi. Navajivan Publishing House. India. 2007.

[ISBN10: 8172291493 /ISBN13: 978-8172291495]

 

10. R. Ramachandran. Hinduism: In the Context of Manusmriti, Vedas and Bhagavat Gita. Vitasta Publishing Pvt Ltd. 2010.

[ISBN13: 978-8189766498]

 

11. S. Radhakrishnan. The Bhagavad Gita. HarperCollins Publication. Thomson Press (India) Ltd. Noida. 2014.

[ISBN10: 8172238983 /ISBN13: 978-8172238988]

 

12. Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India From the Stone Age to the 12^th Century. Pearson Publications. New Delhi. 2009.

[ISBN10: 9788131716779 /ISBN-13: 978-8131716779]

 

13. Smith, Brian, and Doniger, Wendy. The Laws of Manu. Penguin Classics Publication. England. 1991.

[ISBN-10: 0140445404 /ISBN-13: 978-0140445404]

 

 

+ Also See

 

 

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Boghazkoi Inscription of Asia Minor: Linkage Between Vedic Civilizations.

|||The earliest decipherable foreign inscription important for Vedic India|||

All around the World, we found a number of inscriptions that told story of past civilization or in particular about Empires and their religion, culture, administration and important events. Inscriptions are believed to be reliable sources of History and is part of Archaeological Sources of history. Some inscriptions are indigenous and other are foreign. A foreign inscription is important as it provide a linkage between different civilization of the World apart from traditional importantance of an inscription. One such inscription which support Central Asia Theory of Aryans origin, is Boghazkoi (Asia Minor, Turkey ) Inscription. This Inscription is important for India as it mentioned about the names of the Vedic Gods and Goddesses; and enable historians to establish more detailed account of theory of origin of Aryans or relations with Asia Minor in antiquity.

Asia Minor (Anatolia) had a long back history of empires and comprising various historical sites. One such historical site is Boghazkoi or Boghazkeui; which is a village in north-central region of Turkey, located 27 km north-west of Yozgat. During the Bronze Age, this site was the capital of the Hittites empire in Anatolia and northern Syria in the 2nd millennium BCE. 

Going back in history, we found that, Hittites were ancient Anatolian people; they formed an empire between 1600-1180 BCE. It is important to note that, the Hittites were Indo-European people, who spoke a language related to Sanskrit- the ancient language of India. Apart from this, they are characterized by advanced iron good manufacturing. They ruled through government officials with independent authority over various branches of government, indicating well developed administration. Religious worshipped of storm gods were practised in their kingdom. From various evidences, scholars conclude that, the Hittites were able to travel long distances and migrate to other lands due to the domestication of horses; as one of the special quality of Indo-Europeans. 

The Hittite Empire was known for its sophisticated system of writing, which used cuneiform script. In 1916, Prof. Bedrich Hrozny deciphered the Hittite language and it was concluded that Hittite script had close relationship with Indo-European scripts. For example, the inscriptions found at Boghazkoi (1400 B.C.) include the names of several Vedic Gods and Goddesses, such as Indra, Varuna, and Mitra. This suggests that there may have been some cultural and linguistic connections between the Hittites and the Vedic people of India in antiquity.

Basically, Boghazkoi Inscription was about World's First known Peace Treaty, which was the result of Hittite's conflicts with Egypt; a treaty between two kings belonging to Hittites and Mitannis. The treaty can be seen as a promise of peace and alliance since both powers make the mutual guarantee that they would not invade the other's land and promote alliance by making reassurances of aid. The text of this treaty was concluded with an oath before Gods and Goddesses of Egypt and Hatti as a common practice of that period; witnessed by the Mountains, the Rivers, the Sky, the Earth, the great Sea, the Winds and the Clouds. If the treaty was ever violated, the oath-breaker would be cursed by the Gods and, if he maintained his vows, he would be rewarded by the Gods.

Apart from agreements of treaty, if we examine religious and cultural aspect of this treaty, we found it special; and it provides us a medium to understand Aryan and their Origin as Vedic Gods like Indra, Varuna and others are referred to as In-da-ra, Mi-ta-ra, U-ru-van and Na-sa-ti-ya; along with the Ashwini twins, invoked to bless and witness the treaty. Here, we can easily understand that the names are definitely Vedic with slight phonetic variations in them. Now, after discovering and study to Boghazkoi Inscription, scholars concluded various theories regarding Aryans and their homeland. Some of important views are as follows:

1. Some scholars opined that, the Hittite peoples may have migrated from India, as Aryans were originally inhabitants of India and did not come from outside as there is no archaeological or biological evidence, which could establish the arrival of any new people from outside between 5,000 B.C. and 800 B.C. 

Scholars like Dr. A. C. Dass, L. D. Kalla, etc., have propounded Indian Origin theory of Aryans and two prominent argument are:-

(a). Rigveda says that the Aryans were the residents of Sapta-Sindhu, and this region stretched from river Indus, reaching up to the Saraswati River including Kashmir and Punjab region; as these sites are part of Indian subcontinent, so Aryans are Indian, the original inhabitants of someplace near Punjab.

(b). If they come from outside and would have brought there ancient literature -Vedas with them, then why we have not found any vedic literature outside India, specifically Sanskrit words. The 'mantras' of Rigveda indicating that vedic people were must have been residents of some place near Punjab. 

Scholars, asserted that it has not been proved till now that the Aryans came from outside, but Vedic literature mention about a lot of things found on Indian soil. So, it is possible that Hittite peoples were Aryans who migrated from India.

2. Opposite to first view, we have scholars who stress that original homeland of Aryans were Central Asia and they migrated from there to Indian subcontinent and settled in Sapta-sindhu region. Central Asian Theory of Aryan origin support this view. The chief advocate of this theory was Prof. Max Muller of Germany. It was found that both, the Vedic literature and Iranian book 'Zenda-Avesta' illustrates that India and Iran must have cohabited, because many similarities, like both were nature worshippers and had agriculture as their chief livelihood. Supporters of this theory indicate Central Asia as the original home of Aryans. Based on the inscription discovered in Boghazkoi in Asia Minor, some historians more specifically indicate Pamir or Russian Turkistan as the ancestral home of the Aryans. These inscriptions comprise references to Gods, like lndra and Varun. However, oppositions of this theory point out that such a small place can never be the ancestral home of a huge majority of people. Furthermore, this land is not a very productive land. There are different theories about it. But according to most historians, the Aryans came from Central Asia, also known as Andronovo culture in about 1500 BCE. It is believed that Persians, Indians, Greeks and Romans must have lived together in very ancient times in Central Asia. So, Boghazkoi Inscription very important evidences in this account.

3. A third view is that, there may have been some kind of trade or cultural exchange between the two regions. The discovery of inscriptions at Boghazkoi has been seen as significant evidence of the connections between ancient India and the rest of the world. The spread of technologies like the wheel and wagon, which were also used in ancient Mesopotamia and other early civilizations in the region, also assisted pastoralists and agrarian civilizations; and establish a similarity between vedic people and rest of the world. Cultural transition may be happened with trade and commerce, but it is important to note that, trade and commerce never change religion or customerly practices at a mass level or a level where indigenous practices lost completely, until unless that place was invaded and captured by another group, in general.

|||Homeland of Aryans : one of the inscription proves that the Aryans are from Central Asia is Boghazkoi (Asia Minor ,Turkey ) Inscription.|||

Image Courtesy

- Google Map

Bibliography

1. Bederman, David J. International Law in Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. United Kingdom. 2001.

[ISBN-13: 978-0521791977] 

[ISBN-10: 0521791979]

2. Güterbock, Hans G. "Bogazköy". Geography and Travel, Britannia. 

[https://www.britannica.com/place/Bogazkoy]

3. IndiaNetzone. "Original Home of Aryans".

[https://www.indianetzone.com/24/original_home_aryans.htm]

4. Kumari, Santosh. "History of God's and Goddesses of Ancient India: The Boghaz Koi Inscription". Sanskriti Magazine. 

[https://www.sanskritimagazine.com/history-gods-goddesses-ancient-india-boghaz-koi-inscription]

5. Mark, J. Joshua. "The Hittites". World History Encyclopaedia.

[https://www.worldhistory.org/hittite]

6. Wikipedia. "Egyptian–Hittite Peace Treaty". 

[https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Hittite_peace_treaty]

History Factsheet - 1

1. " Study of Past" -History.

2. "The Father of History" -Herodotus.

3. "First Real Historian of the World" -Herodotus.

4. "The Father of Modern History " -Bishop William Stubbs.

5. "History repeats itself" - said by Hegel.

6. "History repeats itself, first as tragedy, second as farce" - said by Karl Marx.

7. "History is an unending dialogue between past and present" - said by E.H.Carr.

8. In India, Saka Samvata (i.e. Saka era which was reckoned from 78AD) is used in some government sectors customerly (officially - also called National Calendar), where as Gregorian calendar (which was introduced in 1582AD by Roman Pope Gregory XIII) is used everywhere practically.

9. Vedas are brahmanical religious texts. They are four in numbers and believed to be eternal origin (i.e. directly heared from God's/Cosmos by Rishis). So as they are part of Shruti Texts. They are as follows:

(I). Rig Veda - 1500BC to 1000BC in Sapta Saindhuv Region.

(II). Yajur Veda - 1000BC to 600BC in Kuru Panchalan Region.

(III). Sama Veda - 1000BC to 600BC in Kuru Panchalan Region.

(IV). Atharva Veda - 1000BC to 600BC in Kuru Panchalan Region.

10. "Number of Purans" - 18 Purans.

11. "Epic Ramayana" - written by Maharishi Valmiki.

12. "Epic Mahabharata" - written by Rishi Ved Vyas.

13. "Composing Time of 18 Purans & 2 Epics" - 400BC to 400AD.

References:

1. Wonder That Was India 

2. India's Ancient Past 

3. History of Ancient India

4. IGNOU Study Material

5. Indian Art & Culture 

Also see:

1. Historical Sources

2. Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sources

3. Bharatvarsha 

4. UGC NET JRF Latest Syllabus 

5. UPSC Content 

6. Inscriptions

7. Sabha and Samiti 

History Factsheet Index

Exam Oriented One Liner

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Excavation Works, Ruined Cities & other Archaeological Artefacts

In earlier articles, we learnt about classification of Archaeogical sources; which had classified into four broader category as 

1. Inscriptions

2. Coins

3. Monuments, and

4. Excavation Works, Ruined Cities and other Archaeological Artefacts.

In this article we will learn about Excavation work, Runied cities and other Archaeological artefacts. 

In history, exploration and excavation work played curcial role in finding archaeological sources, which helps us to reconstruct history. Exploration is the first task of historians and researchers to explore things relevant for their work. It motivate a historian to start Excavation work, if required. From these two primary tasks we will able to collect various kind of artefacts, inscriptions, coins, monuments or runied cities or sites; where ancients were lived once and using these artefacts. Today, we have a number of methods to explore a site and similarly methods and techniques are available to excavate these sites.

[Read Article on Exploration & Excavation to know more about Methods and techniques; here it is not relevant.]

If we talk about Ruined Cities, these are one of the first findings of exploration, (as exploration work certain us that this site may be habitat of some ancient civilizations). After that, excavation work begin and we see a number of artefacts of particular ancient civilization from that runied site. For example, Excavation works at Harappa (Pakistan), Mohen-jodaro (Pakistan) reveal about Great Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) which exist approximately 5000 years ago in Indian Subcontinent. It is after that discovery of IVC that we begun to talk of a civilization on Indian soil prior to Vedic time. 

If we talk about Ruined city of Mohen-jodaro (situated in Larkana district of Sind, Pakistan), most of the information collection by excavation work shows a glorious history of India. We got knowledge of town planning, housing, sealings, metallurgy, casting, trade and commerce, etc. and all this indicates us about an urban society.

The excavation of Ataranjikhera indicate that in Gangetic valley of India, use of Iron begun in 1000B.C.

Apart from ruined cities we collect a number of other archaeological artefacts in the form of pottery, terracotta, wheel, coins, tablets, etc. These artefacts and sources may be founded during exploration work on the surface specially in case of inscriptions, monuments, buildings, paintings etc. Or founded by excavation works like coins, terracotta, seals, pottery, amulets, wheels, food grains, carbon footprints of milk, etc. The earliest dancing girl statue found in IVC is a good example. 

Seal representing the mother Goddess as a plant growing from her womb; stone figurine of bearded man, has been found from Mohen-jodaro.

A large numbers of potteries were found at all IVC sites. They were experts in the use of Potter's wheel; their pottery was red and black, incised, polychrome and glazed. These pots were decorated with a variety of pleasing designs, floral and geometric, birds figures, animal figures and human figures. We found very vast number of goblets, drinking cups, stone jars from IVC sites. These artefacts reconstructing a history of well flourished urban society.

Conclusion:

Inscriptions, Coins, Monuments, Ruined Cities and other artefacts founded by exploration and excavation work are archaeological historical sources. From these sources and runied sites, we learn about material culture which was developed in that region in ancient time. They shows the layout of the settlement in which people lived, the types of pottery they used, the form of house in which they dwelt, types of cereals people ate, types of tools and implements used, buiral practices, religious practices, etc. and all of these findings worked as historical sources to reconstruct History of past. 

Next Articles:

1. Dating of Archaeological sources 

2. Literary sources

3. Foreign Accounts

4. Geographical factors in History

5. Periodization in History

References:

1. Wonder That Was India 

2. India's Ancient Past 

3. History of Ancient India

4. IGNOU Study Material

5. Indian Art & Culture 

Also see:

1. Rina

2. Historical Sources

3. Varnasrama

4. Vedanta

5. Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sources

6. Bharatvarsha 

7. UGC NET JRF Latest Syllabus 

8. UPSC Content 

9. Inscriptions

10. Purusharthas

11. Sabha and Samiti 

12. Exploration and Excavation in Archaeology 

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Coins (or Numismatics)

Coin is a small, flat, rounded piece of metal or other substances (material) used primarily as a medium of exchange (or legal tendor). Coins are the major archaeological source of history. The scientific study of coins is called Numismatics. Coins were used for various purposes such as donations, a mode of payment and a medium of exchange; that throws considerable light on economic history.

Ancient coins can be found on ground as well as unearthed by diggings. They were made of metals like copper, silver, gold, lead, potin. As they are legal tendor, coins provide important economic history. Coins give us information about some chronological issues as well. The areas where they are found indicate the extent of influence of particular ruler or kingdom and its relations with distant areas. For example, Roman coins discovered in India give us an idea about the existence of contacts with the Roman Empire.

Cowries were also used as coins however, their purchasing power was very low as compare to silver or gold or other kind of coins. They appear in substantial numbers in post-Gupta times, but may have been used earlier.

Coins helped transactions on a large scale and contributed to trade; and so speak about the economic situation of a particular period. For example, in case of India, largest number of coins dated to post-Maurya period. These coins were made of lead, potin, copper, bronze, silver and gold. The Gupta's issued largest number of Gold Coins. All this indicates that the trade and commerce flourished, especially in post-Maurya period and in a good part of Gupta period. However, only a few coins belonging to post-Gupta period have been found, which indicates a decline of trade and commerce in later period.

Earliest coins contain a few symbols, but later coins depict the figures of kings and divinities and also mention their names and dates. As figures of kings along with their name and dates tell us about period of their region; the areas where these coins are found indicating region of its circulation. This enable historian to reconstruct history of several ruling dynasties. 

Portray of kings, God's, religious symbols and legends; all of these throws light on the art and religion of that time. 

Some coins were also issued by Guilds of Merchants and goldsmiths with the permission of rulers. This shows that crafts and commerce had become important. 

A large number of coins are preserved in museums all of the World. For example, Indian coins are preserved in museums at Calcutta, Patna, Lucknow, Delhi, Jaipur, Mumbai and Chennai. Many Indian coins are found in the museums of Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Afghanistan. Indian coins catalogue is also available in all over the World like in British Museum of London. 

The punch marked coins are the earliest coins of India, also known as Aahat coins. The coinage of the Mauryan Empire was an example of the punch-marked coinage of Magadha.

The Samudragupta's Aswamedha coins, Lion-slayer coins give us an idea of Samudragupta's ambition and love of hunting.

Next Article:

1. Monuments

2. Excavation works, Ruined cities and other archaeology artefacts

3. Exploration and Excavation

4. Literary Sources 

References

1. Wonder That Was India 

2. India's Ancient Past 

3. History of Ancient India

4. IGNOU Study Material 

Also see:

1. Bharatvarsha

2. Historical Sources

3. Archaeological Sources 

4. Literary Sources 

5. Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sources

6. Archaeology Dating Methods 

7. UGC NET JRF Latest Syllabus 

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Inscriptions (or Epigraphy)

In general terms, inscriptions are writings or texts carved on solid objects as stone, pillars, walls, seals, temples, rocks, caves, forts, copper tablet, wooden tablet, bricks, etc. They are the most authentic, accurate and reliable archaeological evidences to know our past. The study of inscriptions is called Epigraphy.

Inscriptions represents various languages at different places and period of time. They were written in all languages like Prakrit, Pali, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telgu, etc. Most of them written in Brahmi script till 7th century A.D. afterthat, strong regional variations in script was seen. 

On the basis of contents of inscriptions, they can be grouped as follows:

1. Administrative Inscriptions

2. Religious and Didactic Inscriptions

3. Eulogistic Inscriptions

4. Commercial Inscriptions

5. Magical Inscriptions

6. Donative Inscriptions

7. Commemorative Inscriptions

1. Administrative Inscriptions 

These inscriptions give valuable information regarding the extent of the kingdom, administration, etc. Ashoka's edicts are a specimen of this group. The Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman I, Banskhera Copper plate inscription of Harsha, Sohgaura copper plate Inscription, are some other examples.

2. Religious and Didactic Inscriptions 

These inscriptions give information about religious and moral matters of the time. Best speciem of this group of inscription is Ashoka's Edicts. Bhabru edict expresses Ashoka's faith in the Triratna of Buddhism. Rock edict X, XI and XII preached religious toleration, true charity and practicing Dhamma. 

3. Eulogistic Inscriptions 

These inscriptions give information about name and genealogy of the ruler, his military and political achievements, inter-state relations, the political ideas, his patronage and personal accomplishments. These inscriptions eulogise the achievements of kings and never speak of their defeats or weaknesses. So, they are very important from the political point of view. Ashoka's Edicts, Hathigumpha inscriptions of Kharavela of Kalinga and the Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta are some of best examples. The Aihole stone inscription (Karnataka) of the Chalukya king Pulakeshin II written by Ravikirti, Girnar Rock inscription of Rudradaman, Mandasaur stone pillars inscription of Yasodharman, Nasik cave inscription of Usavadata, Gwalior prasati of King Bhoja, are some other examples.

4. Commercial Inscriptions 

These inscriptions provide us information of  commercial and trade. Their specimens are to be found on the seals of the Indus Valley. They mostly used as stamp to stamping goods.

5. Magical Inscriptions 

These inscriptions contains magical formulas on them and used as amulets. These group of inscriptions were found in Harrappan seals. These seals represents various animals, trees and deities. 

Note: The Harappan inscriptions were written in Pictographic Script and has not been deciphered yet.

6. Donative Inscriptions 

These inscriptions deals with donations of caves or buildings to monks, land and villages to monks and priests, money to educational institutions, monasteries and brahmans.

7. Commemorative Inscriptions 

These inscriptions were the record events like birth, death or other important events. Some of inscriptions in this group contain poetic compositions and dramatic works; they are termed as literary inscriptions due to these properties. For example, Rummindei inscription (Nepal), Sarnath inscription (U.P.), Dhauli inscription (Odisha), Jaugada inscription (Odisha) of Ashoka, it mentions that a huge stone pillar was erected and huge stone wall was constructed at the birthplace of Buddha (many years after his coronation).

So, Epigraphy throws light on the life lived in the past, the nature of society and economy and the general state of life as a reliable information source.

Next Article:

1. Coins or Numismatics

2. Monuments

3. Excavation works, Ruined cities and other archaeology artefacts

4. Exploration and Excavation

References

1. Wonder That Was India 

2. India's Ancient Past 

3. History of Ancient India

4. IGNOU Study Material 

Also see:

1. Bharatvarsha

2. Historical Sources

3. Archaeological Sources 

4. Literary Sources 

5. Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sources

6. Archaeology Dating Methods 

7. UGC NET JRF Latest Syllabus 

Home

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Division of History

Significance of History