Ans. Now we no Longer understand history to be simply a chronicle of kings. Instead, historians are interested in, explore, and attempt to reconstruct histories of the environment, of gender relations, of social categories and classes that were regarded as marginal, subordinate or even insignificant, of processes, and of regions that were considered peripheral. Most of these works were composed by literate men, generally Brahmana, for consumption by the ruling elite. Vast sections of the population, including common women and men, find little or no place within such narratives. Clearly, history and notions of the Indian past were inextricably enmeshed in notions of power.
Following are the various early texts and traditions that have historiographical significance:-
1. VEDIC DANSTUTIS
If we understand histories as recording events that were regarded as significant by those who chronicled them, some of the earliest examples of these come from the Rigveda. These include verses that were identified as danastutis (literally ‘in praise of gifts’). These were composed by the recipients, who were priests, and usually mention the name of the donor. The recipient acknowledges the gifts he receives and prays for the well-being of the donor.
Such acknowledgments or proclamations were a part of major rituals such as the asvamedha as well. As part of the ritual, the sacrificial horse was let loose to wander for a year. During that period, a brahmana priest was expected to sing about the generosity of the patron every morning, while a ksatriya was to sing about his war-like exploits every evening. Only what was regarded as positive or desirable from the point of view of the brahmana or the ksatriya would find a place in such eulogies. Other activities, or failures, would tend to be glossed over or even obliterated from memory.
2. EPICS
Traditionally, the Mahabharata is recognised as an itihasa while the Ramayana is regarded as a mahakavya. Archaeological excavations and explorations indicate that sites such as Hastinapura and Indraprastha (associated with the Mahabharata) and Ayodhya (associated with the Ramayana) were small, pre-urban settlements during this period. Significantly, both epics contain genealogies. The Mahabharata contains the genealogies of the lunar (chandravamsa) lineage, while the Ramayana contains the genealogy of the solar (suryavamsa) lineage. While the genealogies may not be literally true, they are important for what they suggest about socio-political processes.
3. PURANAS
By the middle of the 1st millennium CE, another category of literature, the Puranas, was written down. Like the epics, the antecedents of the Puranas can be traced back for several centuries. We find two or three types of genealogies in the Puranas. The first includes lineages of Sages. Such lineages, which perhaps served as markers of legitimate transmission of knowledge, are found in some of the Upanisads and Dharmasastras as well. The other genealogies are those of rulers. These in turn are divided into two categories, those that Pre-date the onset of the Kaliyuga and those of rulers who are post- Kaliyuga.
The First category, delineating the original solar and lunar lineages, includes the heroes of the Epics. The genealogy of the second category of rulers, clearly lesser mortals, is marked by an interesting feature. All these genealogies, which in some cases run till about the 5th century CE, are constructed in the future tense. Clearly, traditions of recording the names of rulers as well as the duration of their reigns were widely prevalent, and were more or less systematised within the Puranic tradition. Thus the genealogies often provide information about the kind of kinship networks that were valorised.
4. COURTLY TRADITIONS : PRASASTIS & CHARITAS
Categories of texts that were probably meant for circulation amongst elite audience. These were associated with the Royal court, and were usually written in ornate Sanskrit, with prolific use of similes, metaphors, and other strategies to render the text weighty. Examples of these texts are found in prasastis or eulogistic inscriptions as well as in caritas.
I. PRASASTIS
These were often independent inscriptions, but could also be part of votive inscriptions, commemorating the generosity of the royal donor, particularly common from c. 4th century CE. The best-known prasastis is Samudragupta’s Prayaga prasasti, also known as the Allahabad Pillar Inscription, composed by Harisena. The inscription describes how the ruler was chosen by his father, his numerous exploits, and the strategies whereby he won the allegiance of rulers of distant lands, his heroic qualities and his boundless scholarship. In short, the ruler is idealized as an all-rounder, someone who excelled in just about everything. It is likely that some of the descriptions of the ruler’s exploits are true. Another famous prasasti is that of Pulakesin II, the Calukya ruler of the 7th century CE composed by Ravikirti.
II. CHARITAS
These were meant to be accounts of the lives and achievements of ‘great men.’ One of the earliest charitas that survive is the Buddhacharita, composed by Asvaghosa (c.1st century CE). Although purporting to be the life of a World renouncer, the author dwells at length on the luxuries of courtly life, including elaborate descriptions of women. It is possible that this was meant to serve as a representation of life at the Kusana court. Perhaps the best-known of the charita genre is the Harsacharita, composed by Banabhatta. This is an account of the early years of Harsa’s reign.
5. KALHANA’s RAJTARANGINI
It is often said that the only truly historical work produced in ancient India was the Rajatarangini by Kalhana, (12th century CE). The Rajatarangini is, at one level, a history of Kashmir since its inception. It consists of eight books or tarangas, and is composed in verse. The first three tarangas deal with history of region till the 7th century CE, tarangas 4 to 6 carry the story forward till 11th century, while the last two tarangas deal with the 12th century. What makes Kalhana’s work unique is that he mentions at the outset the sources he consulted. These included sasanas or royal proclamations pertaining to religious endowments, prasastis or eulogies, and the sastras.
6. OTHER TRADITIONS
Other traditions developed around religious institutions. These included the Buddhist, Jaina, and Brahmanical institutions. Of these, the early Buddhist tradition is perhaps the best-known at present. The monastic order was consolidated, more systematic records were kept; and a system of chronology was evolved. Maintaining such records probably became more important as monasteries became rich institutions, receiving endowments of villages, lands, and other goods, as well as cash, from benefactors including kings. This relationship was documented in texts such as the Dipavamsa and the Mahavamsa.
CONCLUSION
It is evident then that a sense of history was well-developed in early India. Inscriptions and in textual traditions tell us about how elites thought about the past and attempted to both use and manipulate it through specific strategies of recording. For instance in the Vedic Danastutis. Yet, there seem to have been other traditions as well like Rajatarangini. It is when we search for histories of non-elite groups that we run into problems. These were clearly of marginal interest to the literate few. So we are left with the sense of historiographical traditions that were rich, but restricted.
Reference:
- IGNOU MHI textbooks
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